Protocols is a set of rules or an agreement that specifies a common language that computers on a network use for communication with other computers. It also specifies the conditions under which a particular method of doing it. They give the specfication on how the computers talk with each other. There are various protocols suites available.

       Ethernet : This is used to transfer information on a LAN.It specifies a number of wiring and signaling standards for the physical layer, two ways of network access (Media Access Control/Data Link Layer) and a common address format.

     Internet Protocol (IP) : This protocol provides communicable global addresses of to the computers. The computers identify each other by the IP addresses.

    Transport Control Protocol (TCP) : This protocol guarantees reliable, proper delivery of data from the sender to the receiver.It breaks large message, transports them reliably and reassembles them.

    File Transfer Protocols (FTP) : This is used to connect two computers over the Internet so that user of one computer can transfer files and perform file commands on the other computer. It exchnage files over any network that supports TCP/IP protocol.

   Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP) : This protocol used to retrieve Web Page from a Web server.

   Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) : This protocol is used for email transmission.

Internet Or inter-networking refers to a wide network through which computers are interconnection globally with one another, and capable of sharing resource among themselves.

    This network is called 'internet' (with a lower case i). the 'INTERNET' refers to millions of computers, connection in a gigantic network, which communicate via TCP/IP protocols. This collection of computers store immense quantity of information. Computer networks are very common in businesses and government establishments. But the Internet is different from all others in two aspects. First, it is the biggest network in the world, and second it is freely accessible to the public.

Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) was founded on May 1, 1969. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, United States, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company became fables after Global Foundries was spun off in 2009.

AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and embedded systems applications.

AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the  x86 architecture and also one of the largest suppliers of graphics processing units. It also owns 8.6% of Scansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory.

AMD is the only significant rival to Intel in the central processor (CPU) market for (x86 based) personal computers. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete graphics processor unit (GPU) market.

The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx ) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

            In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement, but Intel canceled the agreement in 1986 and refused to convey technical details of the i386 part. AMD challenged Intel's decision to cancel the agreement and won in arbitration, but Intel disputed this decision. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with AMD. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's micro-code. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code.

In 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. It took less than a year for the company to sell a million units. Later, the Am486 was used by a number of large original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, and proved popular. Another Am486-based product, the Am5x86, continued AMD's success as a low-price alternative. However, as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, the process of reverse engineering Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD.

Intel Celeron processor is the low-end (and low cost) member of the family of microprocessors from Intel that is based on its P6 architecture. Although it is based on the same architecture as the Pentium II, it lacks some high- performance features of the Pentium II line.

       Celeron models later than the 300. A include an L1 and L2 cache on the microchip, meaning that the cache is accessed at the same clock speed that the processor operates with. The Celeron L2 cache is smaller (128 kilobyte’s) than the Pentium II's (512 KB). However, because the Celeron L2 cache is on the processor chip and the Pentium II's is not, their effective L2 speeds are closely comparable. With clock speeds up to 466 MHz, Celeron processors are attractive to power users at first glance, but they should be compared to the Pentium II's computing power in order to get an idea of their useful application.

 

In ZDNet's CPU mark 99 benchmark tests, the Celeron processors compared favorably with Pentium II processors. Intel is marketing the processor as a chip for the basic PC. They view it as providing performance Good enough for home and business users doing word processing and Internet surfing. Power users and serious gamers may want to think about spending more for the Pentium II's top performance.

Celeron can be mounted in a Slot 1 motherboard or in a Socket 370 motherboard. Like Intel's other P6 microprocessors, the Celeron can be used for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).

Intel Xeon Processor is a 400 MHz Pentium microprocessor from Intel for use in "mid-range" enterprise servers and workstations on a network.On a server motherboard from Intel, up to eight (and later even more) Xeon processors will be able to do multiprocessing sharing the same 100 MHz bus. Xeon is replacing the Pentium Pro as Intel's main enterprise microchip.

     Xeon is designed for Internet and large transactional database servers as well as for engineering, graphics, and multimedia applications that require moving a lot of data around quickly. Xeon is the high end of the Pentium line (Celeron is the low end).
Xeon is based on the Pentium microprocessor's P6 architecture. It's designed to work with a new and faster Peripheral Component Interconnect bus and Accelerated Graphics Port. Xeon features:

•   A faster L1 and L2 cache, either 512 Kbytes or 1 Mbytes, that runs at the same 400 MHz clock speed of the processor.

•   A faster bus to carry data between the processor, RAM, and I/O devices. The 450NX PCI set is a chipset that works at a 100 MHz clock speed and supports up to 8 GB of extended data output RAM memory.

• A larger Accelerated Graphics Port ( AGP ) chip set called the 440GX AGP set that also runs at 100 Mhz. It supports 2 GB of 100 MHz SDRAM.

•  An extended server memory architecture that provide for 36-bit addresses, allowing up to 64 GB of physical memory to be addressed.

•   Everything pre-mounted in a motherboard package for faster manufacturing

Typically, a computer with a Xeon microprocessor would use a Windows NT, NetWare, or UNIX operating system. Xeon-based systems are expected to offer competition to Sun Microsystems, Silicon Graphics, and others in the workstation market, but its primary market is expected to be the mid-range server.

         

  

Intel Started  in the year 1968. Intel created first microprocessor in the year 1971. Over the year, Intel has modified the microprocessor to make it faster, efficient and reliable. Reduction in size of transistors also reduced the size of the microprocessor.

Intel has created microprocessor families that are customizable to suit the system used for different purpose. The speed, performance and price of a microprocessor differ from one microprocessor family to another.

           

            Intel also makes Motherboard Chipsets, Network Interface Controllers and Integrated Circuits, Flash Memory, Graphic Chips, Embedded Processors and other devices related to communications and computing.                                                                                        

                    Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until 1981. Although Intel created the world's first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became its primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes illegal tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry. The 2013 rankings of the world's 100 most valuable brands published by Millward Brown Optimor  showed the company's brand value at number 61.

                 The various  Intel micro-processors created from 1971 to till date.

1971 :- 4004

1972 :- 8008

1974 :- 4040/8080 

1979 :- 8088

1982 :- 80286

1985 :- 80385 Series

1989 :- 80486 series

1993 :- Pentium Family

1997 :- Pentium II Family

1998 :- Celeron / Xeon Family

1999 :- Pentium III Family

2000 :- Pentium 4 Family

2002 :- Pentium 4 Processor HT

2005 :- Pentium D Processor, Dual- core

2006 :- Intel Core 2 Duo Processor

2008 :- Intel Core 2 Quad Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i3 Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i5 Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i7 Processor

      

                            Intel Microprocessor Timeline

   

  The CISC microprocessors have the instruction built into the microprocessor. These instruction take up space in the microprocessor and leave less space for program processing. Some microprocessor perform  specific tasks, such as those used for  performing scientific calculation. The extra instructions built into the microprocessor take up valuable space in the microprocessor. The processing time taken to execute the extra instruction is also wasted.

                        To overcome these problem, a new architecture called RISC came into picture. The microprocessors using RISC architecture have limited instruction built into it. This requires few transistors to be built into the microprocessor to make up for the time delay in processing the instruction . The reduction in instructions also saves the space in the microprocessor. The RISC microprocessor is cheaper to build than the CISC processor. This processor is favorable for scientific purposes where limited instruction are required.

Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

The Microprocessors using CISC architecture have many instruction built into it. This saves the processing time for performing tasks. The time is saved because the required instructions are available in the microprocessor itself and it does not have to retrieve the instruction from the program stored in the external memory, such as the RAM.

                            The CISC architecture helps the microprocessor to speed up the execution of programs requiring instruction. However, the instruction built into the microprocessor affects the performance of the microprocessor. This is because more time is taken to process the instruction and also the space available on the microprocessor for processing reduces. To overcome this problem, more transistors need to be built into the microprocessor to maintain the speed of microprocessor. This type of processor is useful for general purpose computing. It is generally used in personal computers (PCs).

   

                         ReducedInstruction Set Computer (RISC) :-