Type of Memory Packages

 Type of Memory Packages :-

   Memory package is a small circuit board that contains memory chips. SIMM,DIMM,SODIMM, AND RIMM are some of the memory packages. These packages are the form factors of RAM chip. The installation of a memory depends on the form factors of a RAM. A form factor is the size and shape of the memory packages.

Single In-line Memory Module ( SIMM) :-
                  SIMM is a small circuit board desingned to hold memory chips. It contains pins for accepting data from the control circuit. These circuit boards or modules are known as apckages. There are various SIMM packages available based on the number of pins it contains. For Example there are 30 pin packages and 72 pin packages.
The capacities of a 30-pin package SIMM package are 256 Kb, 1 MB, 2 MB, 4MB,8MB,16MB RAM. It contains 2,4,0r 8 chips per module. A 30-pin SIMM package has a data bus width of 9 bits with 9- bit parity . Parity checks the accuracy of the data transmission. An odd parity and an even parity are the two modes of parity checking.
A 72-pin SIMM package has 32-bit data width with 36-bit parity . PS/2 is another term used for the 72-pin package . The capacities of a 72- pin package are 1 MB, 2MB, 4MB,8MB,16MB,32MB,64,MB,AND 128MB RAM. It contains 2,4,8,or 16 data chips permodule. FPM DRAM uses a 72-pin package.

Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) :-
         DIMM package is also a small circuit board that contains the memory chips. The difference between the SIMM and DIMM is that DIMM is a 168-pin package. The data of the DIMM packages are 64-bit ,72-bit, or 80-bit. A 168-pin DIMM package is available in thr SDRAM, EDO or FPM DRAM chips.

Small outline Dual In-Line Memory Module (SODIMM) :-
              Laptops and notebook systems uses this package. It is the smallest version of the DIMM. The SODIMM package has a notch at the bottom of the circuit board. This notch helps in inserting the SODIMM package is the memory socket. SODIMM packages are available with 144 and 200 pins. A 144- pin SODIMM package has 64-bit data path. The FPM DRAM and EDO RAM use this package. The 72 pins on both the sides of the package divide a 144-pin package.
A 200-pin SODIMM package has 64-bit data path. PC2 100 memory and pc2700 memory use this package. The 100 pins on both sides of the package divide a 200-pin package .

Micro DIMM :-
            Micro DIMM stands for MIcro Dual Inline Meory Module. This package is smaller than DIMM and SODIMM packages. The sub-notebook systems use these memory packages. The Micro DIMM package pins connect the memory module with the memory socket. These pins provide two communication lines for the module and the system. This Package does not have the notch at the bottom. Micro DIMM packages are vailable with 144 and 172 pins.

Rambus Inline Memory Module (RIMM) :-
         RDRAM chip uses the RIMM memory package . This package is same as the DIMM package. It only differs in the pin configuration. The high bandwidth and the low latency application use this memory package .
The RIMM package has a data storage speed of 600 MHz, 711 MHz, 800 MHz and 1066 MHz. It has 184 connecting pins. The distance between each pn in the RIMM package is 1mm. This package starts opearting from 2.5 voltage supply. The RIMM package are available in 16-bit data buses 32-bit data buses, and 64-bit data buses. The memory bandwidth of the RIMm package is up to 9.6 GB per second.

Working of RAM

WORKING OF RAM :-

        RAM stores the data until the processor is executing the current data. Once the processor finishes the current execution, RAM forwards the next data to the processor.
The processor accesses the Data from the RAM is a random order with the help of the memory cell address. The cell address contains the row number and the column number of the memory cell. When the processor receives the data, it actually receives the memory cell address of the data. The RAM controller accepts the memory cell address. The RAM controller reads the data from the cell address and then sends the data in its respective address lines. The address lines contain the transistors and the capacitors for reading the data. The control circuit reads the capacitor when the transistors opens the cell. When the capacitor is charged , the memory cell returns a bit value as 1. When the capacitor is empty, the memory cell returns the bit value as 0.
In DRAM, each cell contains a pair of transistors and capacitor. Each cell represents a single bit of data in the binary format of 0 and 1. The capacitor stores the data in the memory cell. The transistor with the help of the memory control circuit reads these memory cells.A transistor acts as a switch. It turns on when the control circuit reads the capacitor. It turns off when the capacitor is empty. The DRAM Controller refreshes the capacitor after each reading of the memory cell. DRAM refreshes automatically. access speed of RAM is 80ns to 50 NS.

Type Of RAM

   Type Of RAM :-
    
RAM is the main memory of the computer. It holds the data until the system is turned off.once the system is switched off the data is lost. There are two types of Ram , Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.

Static Random Access Memory(SRAM) :-

1) Stores data till the power is supplied
2) Uses an array of transistors for each memory cell.
3) Does not need refreshing the memory cell after each reading of the transistors.
4) Data access is faster
5) Consumes more power
6) It is Expensive.

Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) :-

1) Stores data only for few milliseconds even when power is supplied.
2) Uses a single transistor and capacitor for each memory cell
3) Needs refreshing the memory cell after each reading of the capacitor
4) Data access is slower
5) Consumes less power
6) Less Expensive

Memory

  Memory is one of the functions of the brain that enables to store and remember the past events. Similarly, in Computers the term memory refers to a chip that stores data. It also enables us to retrieve the stored Data. The processor retrieves information stored in the memory for processing Data. The storage capacity of a memory depends on the type of the memory package used.

Types of Memory

Memory can be divided into two types, Volatile memory and non volatile memory. Volatile memory temporarily stores the data. It loses data as soon as the system supply is turned off. Non-volatile memory stores data permanently.It does not lose the data even if the system supply id turned off.
Further, Memory is classified into physical memory, logical memory, virtual memory and flash memory.

Two types of Physical Memory :-

RAM - Stands for Random Access Memory. It is a semiconductor-based memory where the CPU or the other hardware devices can read and write data. It temporarily stores the data and it is a volatile memory.Once the system turns off, it loses the data. As a result, Ram is used as a temporary storage area.
                         Types Of RAM :-

ROM - Stands for Read only Memory. It stores the Data permanently and it is a non volatile memory. It does not lose data even after the system turns off. As a result ROM is a permanent data storage area.

Logical Memory:-
                                 Logical memory enables the user to use large amount of memory to store data.It defines a way to organize the physical memory such as RAM and cache. This enables the operating system to arrange memory into a logical manner such as assigning a logical address. Logical address is a memory location and it is accessed by an application program. The system maps the logical address to real physical storage address.

Virtual Memory :-
                                 Virtual memory is a part of the hard disk which is used as a memory . It has a set of memory addresses and stores the instruction or the data. When the processor executes the instructions it converts the virtual memory addressed into real memory addresses. The main use of the virtual memory is to increase the address space.

Flash Memory :-
                            Flash memory is the high-density device. It is a non volatile memory. It is fast in reading and writing data. This is because it writes data in chunks or blocks. Flash memory is an electrically re-programmable device. The contents from the flash memory are erased in blocks and not in bytes. The block size can range from 256 bytes to 16 kB . Flash Memory can replace hard disk in portable computers. In this context, flash memory is available as pc card that you can plug into the PC MCIA slot.

Cache Memory :-
                                Cache memory is a small and fast memory which is placed between the CPU and RAM.It is accessed at a very high speed than the system memory. As a result, the programs which access the same data or instructions over and over run faster. The cpu does not have to transverse to the main memory to get the data . It will first access the cache to find the data.

Wireless Networking

Wireless technologies allow one or more devices to communicates with each other without any physical connections such as cables. Wireless technologies use radio frequency transmission for transmitting data.

MEDIUM :- Various wireless medium are used to create a wireless network.some medium are used for shot ranges and some for long range.

Short Range wireless Medium :-

1. Infrared          2. Bluetooth       3. Lasers.


Long Range wireless Medium :-

1. Radio waves      2. Micro-Waves        3.Wimax  

 Type of wireless networking :-

Peer to peer (P2P) or AD - Hoc Network :- 
                 In peer to peer network a direct connection is established through a software based interface without the use of any hardware device. P2P multiple computer are connected wireless network interface card (NIC).

Infrastructure Wireless LAN or Access Point :-  
          Access Point can be used to setup wireless network. In this type of network, the wireless device connects to the access point and to the network. It is widely used wireless LAN can be used to connect wired and wireless network.

  

Media Access Control Address

MAC (Media Access Control) Address is a hardware address that is embeddred in the NIC. It is also known ad hardware or physical address. Every NIC has a unique MAC address assigned by IEEE. The MAC address operates at the data link layer of the OSI Model.

        MAC Address is a 12 digit Hexadecimal number (48 bit address). The MAC address is made up of numbers from 0-9 or a letter from A-F.

      The MAC Address is divided in two parts.The first part of the address gives information about the adapter manufacture. It represents the ID number of the manufacture. This ID is provided to the manufactures by IEEE. The second half of the MAC address represents a serial number for that NIC provided by the manufacturer. 

                                           FRAME STRUCTURE OF MAC

Data Communication

Communication means the exchange of information. Information can be transmitted either through a wired medium or through wireless.

             There are various factors that must be considered while transmitting data.

               Example :- Text message , Image , Audio or Video message etc.


Signaling Techniques :-

   Data can be transmitted using either Baseband or Broadband signaling technique.

• Baseband Signals :- Baseband signaling is a technique which uses a signals frequency to transmit data over a cable or wireless path. Base-band signals transmit for data transmission. 

• Broadbrand Signals :- Broadband signals is a technique in which data is transmitted using more than one frequency along a single cable or wireless path. Mostly,broadband signaling make use of analog signals and use frequency division multiplexing (FDM) to create the separate channels.

best example cable TV.

Institute of Electrical And Electronics Engineers

IEEE standards ( Institute of Electrical And Electronics Engineers ) is an association that promotes engineering and electronic improvement.

      IEEE is a non- project organization. A new project group called 802 was started in Feb 1980 to define network standards. IEEE802 committee defines frames, speed,distance and types of cabling to use for networking.

Standards                            Discretion

IEEE 802          :-   LAN/MAN overview and architecture.

IEEE 802.1       :-   LAN/MAN bridging and management.

IEEE 802.1s      :-   Multiple spanning tree.

IEEE 802.1w     :-   Rapid reconfiguration of spanning tree.

IEEE 802.1x      :-   Port - based network access control.

IEEE 802.2        :-   Logical Link control (LLC).

IEEE 802.3        :-    CSMA/CD access method (Ethernet).

IEEE 802.3ae     :-   10 Gigabit Ethernet.

IEEE 802.4         :-   Token passing manage.

IEEE 802.5        :-    Token ring (co-axcial cable).

IEEE 802.6         :-    Distributed Queue Dual Bus (DQDB) access methods.

IEEE 802.7         :-    Broadband LAN

IEEE 802.8         :-    Fiber Optic

IEEE 802.9         :-    Isochronous LANs

IEEE 802.10       :-    Interoperable LAN/MAN security

IEEE 802.11       :-     Wireless

IEEE 802.12       :-     Demand-priority access method.

IEEE 802.13       :-     Not used

IEEE 802.14       :-     Cable modems

IEEE 802.15       :-     Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)

IEEE 802.16       :-     Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (wireless MAN)

IEEE 802.17       :-     Resilient Packet Ring (RPR) access.

                            

                  IEEE 802 SUB COMMITTEES

Protocols

Protocols is a set of rules or an agreement that specifies a common language that computers on a network use for communication with other computers. It also specifies the conditions under which a particular method of doing it. They give the specfication on how the computers talk with each other. There are various protocols suites available.

       Ethernet : This is used to transfer information on a LAN.It specifies a number of wiring and signaling standards for the physical layer, two ways of network access (Media Access Control/Data Link Layer) and a common address format.

     Internet Protocol (IP) : This protocol provides communicable global addresses of to the computers. The computers identify each other by the IP addresses.

    Transport Control Protocol (TCP) : This protocol guarantees reliable, proper delivery of data from the sender to the receiver.It breaks large message, transports them reliably and reassembles them.

    File Transfer Protocols (FTP) : This is used to connect two computers over the Internet so that user of one computer can transfer files and perform file commands on the other computer. It exchnage files over any network that supports TCP/IP protocol.

   Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP) : This protocol used to retrieve Web Page from a Web server.

   Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) : This protocol is used for email transmission.

Internet

Internet Or inter-networking refers to a wide network through which computers are interconnection globally with one another, and capable of sharing resource among themselves.

    This network is called 'internet' (with a lower case i). the 'INTERNET' refers to millions of computers, connection in a gigantic network, which communicate via TCP/IP protocols. This collection of computers store immense quantity of information. Computer networks are very common in businesses and government establishments. But the Internet is different from all others in two aspects. First, it is the biggest network in the world, and second it is freely accessible to the public.

Advanced Micro Devices

Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) was founded on May 1, 1969. Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. is an American multinational semiconductor company based in Sunnyvale, California, United States, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and consumer markets. While initially it manufactured its own processors, the company became fables after Global Foundries was spun off in 2009.

AMD's main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and embedded systems applications.

AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the  x86 architecture and also one of the largest suppliers of graphics processing units. It also owns 8.6% of Scansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash memory.

AMD is the only significant rival to Intel in the central processor (CPU) market for (x86 based) personal computers. Since acquiring ATI in 2006, AMD and its competitor Nvidia have dominated the discrete graphics processor unit (GPU) market.

The company began as a producer of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080 microprocessor. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx ) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

            In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors. IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the Am286 under the same arrangement, but Intel canceled the agreement in 1986 and refused to convey technical details of the i386 part. AMD challenged Intel's decision to cancel the agreement and won in arbitration, but Intel disputed this decision. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided with AMD. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's micro-code. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions of Intel code.

In 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386 processor. It took less than a year for the company to sell a million units. Later, the Am486 was used by a number of large original equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, and proved popular. Another Am486-based product, the Am5x86, continued AMD's success as a low-price alternative. However, as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, the process of reverse engineering Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD.

Celeron Processor

Intel Celeron processor is the low-end (and low cost) member of the family of microprocessors from Intel that is based on its P6 architecture. Although it is based on the same architecture as the Pentium II, it lacks some high- performance features of the Pentium II line.

       Celeron models later than the 300. A include an L1 and L2 cache on the microchip, meaning that the cache is accessed at the same clock speed that the processor operates with. The Celeron L2 cache is smaller (128 kilobyte’s) than the Pentium II's (512 KB). However, because the Celeron L2 cache is on the processor chip and the Pentium II's is not, their effective L2 speeds are closely comparable. With clock speeds up to 466 MHz, Celeron processors are attractive to power users at first glance, but they should be compared to the Pentium II's computing power in order to get an idea of their useful application.

 

In ZDNet's CPU mark 99 benchmark tests, the Celeron processors compared favorably with Pentium II processors. Intel is marketing the processor as a chip for the basic PC. They view it as providing performance Good enough for home and business users doing word processing and Internet surfing. Power users and serious gamers may want to think about spending more for the Pentium II's top performance.

Celeron can be mounted in a Slot 1 motherboard or in a Socket 370 motherboard. Like Intel's other P6 microprocessors, the Celeron can be used for symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).

Xeon Processor

Intel Xeon Processor is a 400 MHz Pentium microprocessor from Intel for use in "mid-range" enterprise servers and workstations on a network.On a server motherboard from Intel, up to eight (and later even more) Xeon processors will be able to do multiprocessing sharing the same 100 MHz bus. Xeon is replacing the Pentium Pro as Intel's main enterprise microchip.

     Xeon is designed for Internet and large transactional database servers as well as for engineering, graphics, and multimedia applications that require moving a lot of data around quickly. Xeon is the high end of the Pentium line (Celeron is the low end).
Xeon is based on the Pentium microprocessor's P6 architecture. It's designed to work with a new and faster Peripheral Component Interconnect bus and Accelerated Graphics Port. Xeon features:

•   A faster L1 and L2 cache, either 512 Kbytes or 1 Mbytes, that runs at the same 400 MHz clock speed of the processor.

•   A faster bus to carry data between the processor, RAM, and I/O devices. The 450NX PCI set is a chipset that works at a 100 MHz clock speed and supports up to 8 GB of extended data output RAM memory.

• A larger Accelerated Graphics Port ( AGP ) chip set called the 440GX AGP set that also runs at 100 Mhz. It supports 2 GB of 100 MHz SDRAM.

•  An extended server memory architecture that provide for 36-bit addresses, allowing up to 64 GB of physical memory to be addressed.

•   Everything pre-mounted in a motherboard package for faster manufacturing

Typically, a computer with a Xeon microprocessor would use a Windows NT, NetWare, or UNIX operating system. Xeon-based systems are expected to offer competition to Sun Microsystems, Silicon Graphics, and others in the workstation market, but its primary market is expected to be the mid-range server.

         

  

Intel

Intel Started  in the year 1968. Intel created first microprocessor in the year 1971. Over the year, Intel has modified the microprocessor to make it faster, efficient and reliable. Reduction in size of transistors also reduced the size of the microprocessor.

Intel has created microprocessor families that are customizable to suit the system used for different purpose. The speed, performance and price of a microprocessor differ from one microprocessor family to another.

           

            Intel also makes Motherboard Chipsets, Network Interface Controllers and Integrated Circuits, Flash Memory, Graphic Chips, Embedded Processors and other devices related to communications and computing.                                                                                        

                    Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business until 1981. Although Intel created the world's first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the personal computer (PC) that this became its primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes illegal tactics in defense of its market position, particularly against Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the direction of the PC industry. The 2013 rankings of the world's 100 most valuable brands published by Millward Brown Optimor  showed the company's brand value at number 61.

                 The various  Intel micro-processors created from 1971 to till date.

1971 :- 4004

1972 :- 8008

1974 :- 4040/8080 

1979 :- 8088

1982 :- 80286

1985 :- 80385 Series

1989 :- 80486 series

1993 :- Pentium Family

1997 :- Pentium II Family

1998 :- Celeron / Xeon Family

1999 :- Pentium III Family

2000 :- Pentium 4 Family

2002 :- Pentium 4 Processor HT

2005 :- Pentium D Processor, Dual- core

2006 :- Intel Core 2 Duo Processor

2008 :- Intel Core 2 Quad Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i3 Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i5 Processor

2010 :- Intel Core i7 Processor

      

                            Intel Microprocessor Timeline